Climate change (Mal) adaptation in the Bangladesh Sundarbans – A systematic review
List of Authors
  • , Institute of Geography, Hamburg University, 20148 Hamburg, Germany , John Bjerg Geary , John Bjerg Geary , Jürgen Scheffran, Jürgen Scheffran, JürgenScheffran

Keyword
  • Bangladesh, maladaptation, barriers to adaptation, gender, ecosystem-based adaptation

Abstract
  • Bangladesh is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change. This vulnerability stems not only from its exposure to climate change and intensified extreme weather events but also from the way adaptation policies and projects have been designed usinga technocratic, top-down approach. As a result, much of the adaptation has led to negative consequences for certain groups—often the most vulnerable—who depend directly on nature for their livelihoods. This outcome, known as maladaptation, has been particularly pronounced. This paper conducts a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature since 2014, the year when maladaptation first gained significant attention in the IPCC’s fifth report. The goal is to assess the current state of research on climate change adaptation in Southwestern coastal Bangladesh, particularly around the Sundarbans, the largest contiguous mangrove forest in the world. The review aims to identify research gaps and discuss key lessons learned. Keywords used in the review include 'maladaptation', 'barriers to adaptation', 'ecosystem-based adaptation', and 'gender', as these concepts are all interrelated to some degree. The review highlights significant research gaps across all topics, as well as a geographical imbalance in the distribution of studies within the region. Given the prevalence of maladaptation in Bangladesh, it is crucial that more research focuses on this issue to gather insights and reduce the risk of maladaptation in future climate change adaptation projects in the country.

Reference
  • 1.Adger, W. N., Arnell, N. W., & Tompkins, E. L. (2005). Successful adaptation to climate change across scales. Global environmental change, 15(2), 77-86.
    2.Adger, W. N., Agrawala, S., Mirza, M., Conde, C., O’Brien, K., Pulhin, J., Pulwarty, R. S., Smit, B. and Takahashi, K. (2007). ‘Assessment of adaptation practices, options, constraints and capacity’, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 717 –743.
    3.Adger, W.N., Dessai, S., Goulden, M., Hulme, M., Lorenzoni, I., Nelson, D.R., ... Wreford, A. (2009). Are there social limits to adaptation to climate change? Climatic Change, 93(3), 335–354. doi:10.1007/s10584-008-9520-z.
    4.Afsari, N., Murshed, S. B., Uddin, S. M. N., & Hasan, M. M. (2022). Opportunities and Barriers against Successive Implementation of Rainwater Harvesting Options to Ensure Water Security in Southwestern Coastal Region of Bangladesh. Frontiers in Water, 44.
    5.Ahammad, R., Nandy, P., & Husnain, P. (2013). Unlocking ecosystem based adaptation opportunities in coastal Bangladesh. Journal of coastal conservation, 17(4), 833-840.
    6.Ahmed, I., Ayeb-Karlsson,S., van der Geest, K., Huq, S., & Jordan, J. C. (2019). Climate change, environmental stress and loss of livelihoods can push people towards illegal activities: a case study from coastal Bangladesh. Climate and Development, 11(10), 907-917.
    7.Ahmed, S., & Khan, M. A. (2023). Spatial overview of climate change impacts in Bangladesh: a systematic review. Climate and Development, 15(2), 132-147.
    8.Alam K, Shamsuddoha M, Tanner T, Sultana M, Huq MJ, Kabir SS (2011). The political economy of climate resilient development planning in Bangladesh. IDS Bull 42(3):52–61.
    9.Alam, S., Hossain, M. L., Foysal, M. A., & Misbahuzzaman, K. (2014). Growth performance of mangrove species in Chakaria Sundarban. International Journal of Ecosystem, 4(5), 233-238.
    10.Alston, M., Whittenbury, K., Haynes, A., & Godden, N. (2014). Are climate challenges reinforcing child and forced marriage and dowry as adaptation strategies in the context of Bangladesh? In Women's Studies International Forum (Vol. 47, pp. 137-144). Pergamon
    11.Alston, M., & Akhter, B. (2016). Gender and food security in Bangladesh: the impact of climate change. Gender, Place & Culture, 23(10), 1450-1464.
    12.Amin, M. R., Zhang, J., & Yang, M. (2014). Effects of climate change on the yield and cropping area of major food crops: A case of Bangladesh. Sustainability, 7(1), 898-915.
    13.Antwi-Agyei, P., Dougill, A.J., Stringer, L.C., and Ardey Codjoe, S.N. (2018). Adaptation opportunities and maladaptive outcomes inclimate vulnerability hotspots of northern Ghana. Clim. Risk Management 19, 83–93.
    14.Asaduzzaman, M., Kabir, R. A., & Radović-Marković, M. (2015). Gender inequality in Bangladesh. JWEE, (3-4), 54-64.
    15.Atteridge, A., & Remling, E. (2018). Is adaptation reducing vulnerability or redistributing it?. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 9(1), e500.
    16.Aye, W. N., Wen, Y., Marin, K., Thapa, S., & Tun, A. W. (2019). Contribution of mangrove forest to the livelihood of local communities in Ayeyarwaddy region, Myanmar. Forests, 10(5), 414.
    17.Ayeb-Karlsson, S., Van der Geest, K., Ahmed,I., Huq, S., & Warner, K. (2016). A people‐centred perspective on climate change, environmental stress, and livelihood resilience in Bangladesh. Sustainability Science, 11, 679-694.
    18.Barnett, J., & O’Neill, S. (2010). Maladaptation. Global environmental change, 20(2), 211-213.
    19.Barnett, J., Evans, L. S., Gross, C., Kiem, A. S., Kingsford, R. T., Palutikof, J. P., ... & Smithers, S. G. (2015). From barriers to limits to climate change adaptation: path dependency and the speed of change. Ecology and society, 20(3).
    20.Begum, H. A. (2005). Empowerment of Women in Bangladesh: TMSS Experience February 28-March, 2005.
    21.Berrang-Ford, L., Pearce, T., & Ford, J. D. (2015). Systematic review approaches for climate change adaptation research. Regional Environmental Change,15(5), 755-769.
    22.Biesbroek, G. R., Klostermann, J. E., Termeer, C. J., & Kabat, P. (2013). On the nature of barriers to climate change adaptation. Regional Environmental Change, 13(5), 1119-1129.
    23.Bilkis, A., Habib, S. B., & Sharmin, T. (2010). A review of discrimination in employment and workplace. ASA University review, 4(2), 137-150.
    24.Chakma Et Al, S. (2022). Climate Change Impacts and Ongoing Adaptation Measures in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Biology and Fisheries, 26(2), 329-348.
    25.Chowdhury, M. A., Hasan, M. K., Hasan, M. R., & Younos, T. B. (2020). Climate change impacts and adaptations on health of Internally Displaced People (IDP): An exploratory study on coastal areas of Bangladesh. Heliyon, 6(9), e05018.
    26.Colls A, Ash N, Ikkala N (2009) Ecosystem-based adaptation: a natural response to climate change. IUCN, Gland, p 16
    27.Dasgupta S., Huq M., Khan Z. H., Murshed M., Ahmed Z., Mukherjee N., et al. (2014). Cyclones in a changing climate: The case of Bangladesh. Climate and Development, 6(2): 96–110.
    28.Eisenack, K., Moser, S. C., Hoffmann, E., Klein, R. J., Oberlack, C., Pechan, A., ... & Termeer, C. J. (2014). Explaining andovercoming barriers to climate change adaptation. Nature Climate Change, 4(10), 867-872.
    29.Ela, MahfuzaZaman, et al. "Climate Change and Livelihood Vulnerabilities: The Forest Resource-Dependent Communities of the Sundarbans of Bangladesh." Climate Vulnerability and Resilience in the Global South: Human Adaptations for Sustainable Futures (2021): 341-352.
    30.Enarson, Elaine (2000). Gender and natural disasters, In focus program on crisis response and reconstruction, Working Paper 1, September, 2000.
    31.Eriksen, S. H., Nightingale, A. J., & Eakin, H. (2015). Reframing adaptation: The political nature of climate change adaptation. Global Environmental Change, 35, 523-533.
    32.Eriksen, S., Schipper, E. L. F., Scoville-Simonds, M., Vincent, K., Adam, H. N., Brooks, N., ... & West, J. J. (2021). Adaptation interventions and their effect on vulnerability in developing countries: Help, hindrance or irrelevance?. World Development, 141, 105383.
    33.Falagas, M. E., Pitsouni, E. I., Malietzis, G. A., & Pappas, G. (2008). Comparison of PubMed, Scopus, web of science, and Google scholar: strengths and weaknesses. The FASEB journal, 22(2), 338-342.
    34.Falzon, D. (2021). Expertise and exclusivity in adaptation decision-making. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 51, 95-100.
    35.Fenton, Adrian & Paavola, Jouni & Tallontire, Anne. (2016). The role of microfinance in household livelihood adaptation in the Satkhira District, Southwest Bangladesh. World Development. 92.
    36.Ford, J. D., & Pearce, T. (2010). What we know, do not know, and need to know about climate change vulnerability in the western Canadian Arctic: a systematic literaturereview. Environmental Research Letters, 5(1), 014008.
    37.Garai, J. (2016). Gender specific vulnerability in climate change and possible sustainable livelihoods of coastal people. A case from Bangladesh. Revista de Gestão Costeira Integrada-Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management, 16(1), 79-88.
    38.Hamilton, S. E., & Friess, D. A. (2018). Global carbon stocks and potential emissions due to mangrove deforestation from 2000to 2012. Nature Climate Change, 8(3), 240-244.
    39.Hassan, K., Higham, J., Wooliscroft, B.,& Hopkins, D. (2019). Climate change and world heritage: a cross-border analysis of the Sundarbans (Bangladesh–India). Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 11(2), 196-219.
    40.Hoque, M. Z., Cui, S., Lilai, X., Islam, I., Ali, G., & Tang,J. (2019). Resilience of coastal communities to climate change in Bangladesh: Research gaps and future directions. Watershed Ecology and the Environment, 1, 42-56.
    41.Hossain, M. A., Ahmed, M., Ojea, E., & Fernandes, J. A. (2018a). Impacts and responses to environmental change in coastal livelihoods of south-west Bangladesh. Science of the total environment, 637, 954-970.
    42.Hossain, P. R., Ludwig, F., & Leemans, R. (2018b). Adaptation pathways to cope with salinization in south-west coastal region of Bangladesh. Ecology and Society, 23(3).
    43.Houghton, R. A., and Nassikas, A. A. (2018). Negative emissions from stopping deforestation and forest degradation, globally.Glob. Change Biol. 24, 350–359.
    44.Huq S (2001). Climate change and Bangladesh. Science 294:1617
    45.Huq, S. I., & Shoaib, J. M. (2013). The soils of Bangladesh (Vol. 1). Dordrecht: Springer.
    46.Islam MS, Haque M (2004) The mangrove-based coastal and nearshore fisheries of Bangladesh: ecology, exploitation and management. Rev Fish Biol Fish 14:153–180.
    47.Islam, M. M., Sallu, S., Hubacek, K., & Paavola, J. (2014). Limits and barriers to adaptation to climate variability and change in Bangladeshi coastal fishing communities. Marine Policy, 43, 208-216.
    48.Islam, S. A., & Rahman, M. M. (2015). Coastal afforestation in Bangladesh to combat climate change induced hazards. J Sci Technol Environ Inform, 2(1), 13-25.
    49.Islam, M. M., Rahman, M. A., Paul, B., & Khan, M. I. (2020). Barriers to climate change adaptation: insights from the Sundarbans mangrove-based fisheries of Bangladesh. Asian Fisheries Science, 33(2), 175-186.
    50.Islam, M. M., Rahman, M. A., Khan, M. S., Mondal, G., & Khan, M. I. (2021). Transformational adaptations to climatic hazards:Insights from mangroves-based coastal fisheries dependent communities of Bangladesh. Marine Policy, 128, 104475.
    51.Ivers, L. C., & Cullen, K. A. (2011). Food insecurity: special considerations for women. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 94(6), 1740S–1744S.
    52.Jacso, P. (2005). As we may search—comparison of major features of the Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar citation-based and citation-enhanced databases. Current science, 89(9), 1537-1547
    53.Jones, L., & Boyd, E. (2011). Exploring social barriers to adaptation: insights from Western Nepal. Global environmental change, 21(4), 1262-1274.
    54.Jordan, J. C. (2015). Swimming alone? The role of social capital in enhancing local resilience to climate stress: a case study from Bangladesh. Climate and Development, 7(2), 110-123.
    55.Jost, Christine, Florence Kyazze, Jesse Naab, Sharmind Neelormi, James Kinyangi, Robert Zougmore, Pramod Aggarwal, Gopal Bhatta, Moushumi Chaudhury, MarjaLiisa Tapio-Bistrom, Sibyl Nelson & Patti Kristjanson (2016) Understanding gender dimensions of agriculture and climate change in smallholder farming communities, Climate and Development, 8:2, 133-144.
    56.Juhola, S., Glaas, E., Linnér, B. O., & Neset, T. S. (2016). Redefining maladaptation. Environmental Science & Policy, 55, 135-140.
    57.Kabir, M. J., Cramb, R., Alauddin, M., Roth, C., & Crimp, S. (2017). Farmers' perceptions of and responses to environmental change in southwest coastal Bangladesh. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 58(3), 362-378.
    58.Kakota, T., Nyariki, D., Mkwambisi, D., & Kogi-Makau, W. (2011). Gender vulnerability to climate variability and household food insecurity. Climate and development, 3(4), 298-309.
    59.Khalil, M. B., Jacobs, B. C., & McKenna, K. (2021b). Linking social capital and gender relationships in adaptation to a post-cyclone recovery context. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 66, 102601.
    60.Khalil, M. B., & Jacobs, B. C. (2021a). Understanding place-based adaptation of women in a post-cyclone context through place attachment. Environmental Development, 39, 100644.
    61.Khan, R. M., Zulfiqar, F., Datta, A., Kuwornu, J. K., & Shrestha, S. (2022). Analysing the variation in farmers’ perceptions of climate change impacts on crop production and adaptation measures across the Ganges’ Tidal Floodplain in Bangladesh. Local Environment, 27(8), 968-987.
    62.Khanom, T. (2016). Effect of salinity on food security in the context of interior coast of Bangladesh. Ocean & Coastal Management, 130, 205-212.
    63.Kibria, M. G., Rahman, S. A., Imtiaj, A., & Sunderland, T. C. (2011). Extent and consequences of tropical forest degradation:successive policy options for Bangladesh.
    64.Kibria, G., & Yousuf Haroon, A. K. (2017). Climate change impacts on wetlands of Bangladesh, its biodiversity and ecology, and actions and programs to reduce risks. In Wetland science (pp. 189-204). Springer, New Delhi.
    65.Kundu, S., Kabir, M. E., Morgan, E. A., Davey, P., & Hossain, M. (2020). Building coastal agricultural resilience in Bangladesh: A systematic review of progress, gaps and implications. Climate, 8(9), 98.
    66.Magnan, A. K., Schipper, E. L. F., Burkett, M., Bharwani, S., Burton, I., Eriksen, S., ... & Ziervogel, G. (2016). Addressing the risk of maladaptation to climate change. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 7(5), 646-665.
    67.Mallick B, Ahmed B, Vogt J (2017) Living with the risks of cyclone disasters in the South-Western coastal region of Bangladesh. Environments 4(13):1–17.
    68.Mbow, H. O. P., Reisinger, A., Canadell, J., & O’Brien, P. (2017). Special Report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems (SR2). Ginevra, IPCC, 650.
    69.Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & PRISMA Group*. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Annals of internal medicine, 151(4), 264-269.
    70.Moser, S. C., & Ekstrom, J. A. (2010). A framework to diagnose barriers to climate change adaptation. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 107(51), 22026-22031.
    71.Munang, R., Thiaw, I., Alverson, K., Mumba, M., Liu, J., & Rivington, M. (2013). Climate change and Ecosystem-based Adaptation: a new pragmatic approach to buffering climate change impacts. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 5(1), 67-71.
    72.Naess, L. O. (2013). The role of local knowledge in adaptation to climate change. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 4(2), 99-106.
    73.Nursey-Bray, M. (2015). Gender, governance, and climate change adaptation. Handbook of climate change adaptation, 1, 1077-1090.
    74.Pachauri, R. K., & Meyer, L. A. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
    75.Pan, Y., Birdsey, R. A., Fang, J., Houghton, R., Kauppi, P. E., Kurz, W. A., ... & Hayes, D. (2011). A large and persistent carbon sink in the world’s forests. science, 333(6045), 988-993.
    76.Pan, Y., Birdsey, R. A., Phillips, O. L., and Jackson, R. B. (2013). The structure, distribution, and biomass of the world’s forests. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 44, 593–622
    77.Paprocki, K. (2018). Threatening dystopias: Development and adaptation regimes in Bangladesh. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 108(4), 955-973.
    78.Parry, M. L., Canziani, O., Palutikof, J., Van der Linden, P., & Hanson, C. (Eds.). (2007). Climate change 2007-impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: Working group II contribution to the fourth assessment report of the IPCC (Vol. 4). Cambridge University Press.
    79.Paul, Shitangsu Kumar. Vulnerability concepts and its application in various fields: a review on geographical perspective. J. Life Earth Sci 8 (2013): 63-81.
    80.Pickering, C., & Byrne, J. (2014). The benefits of publishing systematic quantitative literature reviews for PhD candidates and other early-career researchers. Higher Education Research & Development, 33(3), 534-548.
    81.Pörtner, H. O., Roberts, D. C., Adams, H., Adler, C., Aldunce, P., Ali, E., ... & Birkmann, J. (2022). Climate change 2022: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. IPCC Sixth Assessment Report.
    82.Raad, N., & Burke, M. I. (2018). What are the most important factors for pedestrian level-of-service estimation? A systematic review of the literature. Transportation research record, 2672(35), 101-117.
    83.Rakib, M. R., Islam, M., Parvin, H., & Amstel, A. V. (2018). Climate change impacts from the global scale to the regional scale: Bangladesh. In Bangladesh I: Climate change impacts, mitigation and adaptation in developing countries (pp. 1-25). Springer, Cham.
    84.Rahman, M. S. (2013). Climate change, disaster and gender vulnerability:A study on two divisions of Bangladesh. American Journal of Human Ecology, 2(2), 72-82.
    85.Rahman, M. A., & Rahman, S. (2015). Natural and traditional defense mechanisms to reduce climate risks in coastal zones of Bangladesh. Weather and Climate Extremes, 7,84-95.
    86.Rahman, M. A. (2018). Governance matters: climate change, corruption, and livelihoods in Bangladesh. Climatic change, 147(1-2), 313-326.
    87.Rahman, H. M. T., Hickey, G. M., Ford, J. D., & Egan, M. A. (2018). Climate change research in Bangladesh: research gaps and implications for adaptation-related decision-making. Regional environmental change, 18(5), 1535-1553.
    88.Rahman, S. M., & Mori, A. (2020). Dissemination and perception of adaptation co-benefits: insights from the coastal area of Bangladesh. World Development Perspectives, 20, 100247.
    89.Rawlani, A. K., & Sovacool, B. K. (2011). Building responsiveness to climate change through community based adaptation in Bangladesh. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 16(8), 845-863.
    90.Reza, A. A., & Hasan, M. K. (2019). Forest biodiversity and deforestation in Bangladesh: The latest update. Forest degradation around the world, 1-19.
    91.Rohr, Ulrike, (2006). Gender and climate change’, Tiempo, Vol.59 (April), pp.3-7.
    92.Roy, A. K. D. (2017). An investigation into the major environment and climate change policy issues in southwest coastal Bangladesh. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management.
    93.Saroar, M. M. and Routray, J. K. (2013). ‘Climate Refugee’is not a hoax. But we can avoidit. Empirical evidence from the Bangladesh coast. Climate Change Adaptation in Practice: From strategy development to implementation, 283-301.
    94.Saroar, M. M. (2018). Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) for coastal resilience against water related disasters in Bangladesh. In Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Coastal Communities (pp. 187-205). Springer, Cham.
    95.Saroar, M. M., Mahbubur Rahman, M., Bahauddin, K. M., & Abdur Rahaman, M. (2019). Ecosystem-based adaptation: Opportunities and challenges in coastal Bangladesh. Confronting climate change in Bangladesh, 51-63.
    96.Schipper, E. L. F. (2020). Maladaptation: When adaptation to climate change goes very wrong. One Earth, 3(4), 409-414.
    97.Shameem, M. I. M., Momtaz, S., & Rauscher, R. (2014). Vulnerability of rural livelihoods to multiple stressors: A case study from the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh. Ocean & Coastal Management, 102, 79-87.
    98.Shaw, R., Mallick, F., & Islam, A. (Eds.). (2013). Climate change adaptation actions in Bangladesh. New York: Springer.
    99.Shepard, C. C., Crain, C. M., & Beck, M. W. (2011). The protective role of coastal marshes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS one, 6(11), e27374.
    100.Shukla, P. R., Skeg, J., Buendia, E. C., Masson-Delmotte, V., Pörtner, H. O., Roberts, D. C., ... & Malley, J. (2019). Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems.
    101.Sovacool, B. K. & Linnér, B-O. (2015). The Political Economy of Climate Change Adaptation (Palgrave Macmillan).
    102.Tanjeela, M., & Rutherford, S. (2018). The influence of gender relations on women’s involvement and experience in climate change adaptation programs in Bangladesh. Sage Open, 8(4),
    103.Van Aalst, M. K., Cannon, T., & Burton, I. (2008). Community level adaptation to climate change: The potential role of participatory community risk assessment. Global environmental change, 18(1), 165-179.
    104.Vignola, R., Locatelli, B., Martinez, C., & Imbach, P. (2009). Ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change: what role for policy-makers, society, and scientists? Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 14, 691-696.
    105.Wikipedia. https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundarbans
    World Bank. (2010). Economics of adaptation to climate change: Bangladesh country study. Washington, DC: The World Bank.