Expanding the boundaries of assisted reproductive technology in Malaysia: The case of single women and same-sex couples
List of Authors
  • Haniwarda Yaakob

Keyword
  • Medical Law and Ethics, Bioethics, Assisted Reproductive Technologies

Abstract
  • The birth of the world’s first ‘test-tube’ baby in 1978 marked a significant landmark in the field of Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART). When first introduced, ART were primarily meant to alleviate infertility among heterosexual married couples. This position is still manifested in laws and policies on ART in several jurisdictions including Malaysia. Nonetheless, with changing social norms, the ‘right’ to procreate have also been claimed beyond the traditional nuclear family setting. With the rising number and acceptance of same-sex relationships, these individuals are now claiming for equal access to ART to enable them to create a family. Similarly, the number of single unmarried women are also rising where many wishes to conceive alone without a male spouse for various reasons. A crucial issue, thus, arises on the acceptability of allowing legal access to ART for same-sex couples and single women in Malaysia. This represents the main thesis of this paper where the harms and benefits of expanding the boundary of ART beyond the scope of heterosexual married couples are critically explored. Overall, it is concluded that although the alleged harms on children is still lacking in substantial evidence, the clear prohibition against the practice in Islam is likely to hinder its recognition in Malaysia.

Reference
  • 1. Amato, P., & Keith, B. (1991). Parental Divorce and the Well-Being of Children: A Meta-Analysis. Psychol. Bull 110, 24-46. 2. Apa Sebab Seseorang Itu 'di-Bin Abdullah' Dan Kenapa Ada Yang Lawan Isu Ini? (n.d.). Retrieved from Asklegal: https://Asklegal.my 3. Assisted Reproduction Law Facing Hurdles, Says D-G. (2012, October 6). Retrieved from The Star Online: https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2012/10/06/assisted-reproduction-law-facing-hurdles-says-dg/ 4. Assisted Reproductive Technology. (n.d.). Retrieved from Prince Court Medical Centre: https://www.princecourt.com/service-areas/medical-departments/assisted-reproductive-technologies-art/ 5. Association, A. P. (n.d.). Intrauterine Insemination. Retrieved from American Pregnancy: https://americanpregnancy.org/infertility/intrauterine-insemination 6. Aziz, S. A. (2009). Some Thoughts on the Relationship Between Law and Religion in Malaysia. CLJ(A) , xix. 7. Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2009). Principles of Biomedical Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8. Bonaccorso, M. M. (2009). Conceiving Kinship: Assisted Conception, Procreation and Family in Southern Europe. Oxford: Berghahn Books. 9. Brewaeys, A., Ponjaert, I., Hall, E. V., & Golombok, S. (1997). Donor Insemination: A Child Development and Family Functioning in Lesbian Mother Families. Human Reproduction 12(6), 1349-1359. 10. Broderick, P., & Correia, H. (2009). Access to Reproductive Technologies by Single Women and Lesbians: A Social Representation and Public Debate. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology 19, 241-256. 11. Brown, L. (2018, July 25). Louise Brown in 40 Years of IVF: 'I was the world's first IVF baby, this is my story'. Retrieved from Independant: https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/ivf-baby-louise-brown-story-test-tube-world-first-40th-anniversary-a8455956.html 12. Cabuyao, P. (2017, March 11). How Single Mothers Could Help Singapore. Retrieved from The Dplomat: https://thediplomat.com 13. Cabuyao, P. (2017, March 11). How Single Mothers Could Help Singapore. Retrieved from The Diplomat: https://thediplomat.com 14. Clarke, M. (2006). Islam, Kinship and New Reproductive Technology. Antropology Today 22, 17-20. 15. Collin, S. (1989). J.S.Mill on Liberty and Other Writings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 16. Council, M. M. (2006). Guideline of the Malaysian Medical Council MMC Guideline 003/2006 Assisted Reproduction. 17. Dahl, E. (2007). The 10 Most Common Objections to Sex Selection and Why They Are Far From Being Conclusive: A Western Perspective. Reproductive Biomedicine Online 14, 158-161. 18. Deech, R., & Smajdor, A. (2007). From IVF to Immortality Controversy in the Era of Reproductive Technology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 19. Doi, A. R. (1984). Shariah: The Islamic Law. Kuala Lumpur: A.S. Noordeen. 20. Falk, P. J. (1989). Lesbian Mothers: Psychological Assumptions in Family Law. American Psychologist 44, 941-947. 21. Fasouliotis, S. J., & Schenker, J. (1999). Social Aspects in Assisted Conception. Human Reproduction Update 5(1), 26-39. 22. First IVF Baby Born at a Government Hospital. (2001, April 19). Retrieved from Utusan Online: http://www.utusan.com.my 23. Fortier, C. (2007). Blood, Sperm and the Embryo in Sunni Islam and in Mauritania: Milk Kinship, Descent and Medically Assisted Procreation. Body Society 13, 15-36. 24. G. De Wert, W. D. (2014). ESHRE Task Force on Ethics and Law 23: Medically Assisted Reproduction in Singles, Lesbian and Gay Couples, and Transsexual People. Human Reproduction, 1859-1865. 25. Gates, G. J. (2013, February). LGBT Parenting in the United States. Retrieved from The Williams Institute: http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/LGBT-Parenting.pdf 26. Gates, G. J. (2015). Marriage and Family: LGBT Individuals and Same-Sex Couples. The Future of Children 25, 67-87. 27. Gill, G. S. (2005). Autonomy in Medical Ethics After O'Neill. Journal of Medical Ethics, 127-130. 28. Gopal, M. D. (2015). Does Illegitimacy Status of Children Matter? A Review on Malaysian Perspectives. Journal of Applied Psychology 5(4), 109-114. 29. Greenfeld, D. A. (2007). Gay Male Couples and Assisted Reproduction: Should We Assist? Fertility and Sterility, 18-20. 30. Greenfeld, D. A. (2007). Gay Male Couples and Assisted Reproduction: Should We Assist? Fertility and Sterility 88(1), 18-20. 31. Gurevich, R. (2018, May 6). What to Expect Along the Path to Conceiving with IVF. Retrieved from https://www.verywellfamily.com 32. Hamzah, D. H. (2012, April 15). IVF in Malaysia. Retrieved from Harley Street Group: http://www.harleystreetinternational.com/doctor.php?p=19&id=41 33. Harris, J. (1985). The Value of Life. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 34. Harris, J. (2003). Consent and End of Life Decisions. Journal of Medical Ethics 29, 10-15. 35. Herring, J. (2016). Medical Law and Ethics 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 36. IFFS. (2016). Global Reproductive Health 1(1). Retrieved from IFFS Surveillance: https://journals.lww.com/grh/Fulltext/2016/0900/IFFS_Surveillance_2016.aspx 37. In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF). (n.d.). Retrieved from Mayo Clinic: https://www.mayoclinic.org Infertility and Artificial Insemination. (2019). Retrieved from WebMD: https://www.webmd.com/infertility-and-reproduction/guide/artificial-insemination#1 38. Inhorn, M. C. (2006). Islam, IVF and Everyday Life in the Middle East - the Making of Sunni Versus Shi'ite Test-Tube Babies. Anthropology of the Middle East 1, 42-50. 39. Jackson, E. (2001). Regulating Reproduction - Law, Technology and Autonomy. Oxford: Hart Publishing. 40. Jackson, E. (2004, June 11). Fertility Treatment: Abolish the 'Welfare Principle'. Retrieved from Spiked Online: http://www.spiked-online.com/Articles/0000006DDF2/htm. 41. Jackson, E. (2016). Medical Law Text Cases and Materials. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 42. JAKIM. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.e-fatwa.gov.my/jakim/ 43. JAKIM. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.islam.gov.my 44. Kamali, M. H. (1991). Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. Cambridge: Islamic Text Society. 45. Kasule, O. H. (2005). Derivation of Legal Rulings on In-Vitro Fertilisation from the Purposes of the Law. The International Medical Journal 4, 80-86. 46. Kes Cerai Tertinggi di Selangor. (2018, July 14). Retrieved from Kosmo Online: www.kosmo.my 47. Love, B. (2017, September 12). French Government Pledges to Legalise Assisted Reproduction by 2018. Retrieved from Independant: https://www.independant.co.uk 48. Mahmood, F. (2008, November 10). Islamic Perspectives of ARTs: Implications of Divergence A Sharia'a Interpretation. Retrieved from BioNews: http://www.bionews.org.uk. 49. Mallon, G. (2004). Gaymen Choosing Parenthood. New York: Colombia University Press. 50. Mamo, L. (2007). Queering Reproduction: Achieving Pregnancy in the Age of Technoscience 1st ed. Durham & London: Duke University Press. 51. Managaro, C. L. (2018, July 21). Louise Brown, First Person Conceived Using in Vitro Fertilisation. Retrieved from Encyclopaedia Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louise_Brown 52. McLanahan, S., & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing Up with a Single Parent: What Hurts. What Helps. Cambridge, Massuchussets: Harvard University Press. 53. McLean, S. (1986). The Right to Reproduce. In T. Campbell, Human Rights: From Rhetoric to Reality (pp. 99-122). Oxford: Blackwell . 54. Meikeng, Y. (2015, November 29). Act to Ensure Country Has Regulations on Artificial Reproduction. Retrieved from The Star Online: https://www.thestar.com.my 55. Munson, R. (2000). Intervention and Reflection, Basic Issues in Medical Ethics, 6th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth. 56. Planning for Pregnancy. (n.d.). Retrieved from IVF Australia: https://www.mayoclinic.org (1984). Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Human Fertilisation and Embryology. London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office. 57. Robertson, J. A. (1994). Children of Choice - Freedom and the New Reproductive Technologies. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 58. Robertson, J. A. (2004). Gay and Lesbian Access to Assisted Reproductive Technology. Western Law Review, 323-372. 59. Robinson, B. E. (1997). Birds Do It. Bees Do It. So Why Not Single Women and Lesbians? Bioethics 11(3) & 4, 217-226. 60. Ronner, M. M. (2008). The Fertility Doctor: John Rock and the Reproductive Revolution. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press. 61. Rose, M. (2019, July 24). Macron Gambles on Cultural Shift with Bill Allowing IVF for Lesbians. The Star Online. Retrieved from http://www.thestar.com.my/news/world... 62. Samy, F. A. (2009, April 24). Laws to Regulate Infertility Treatment. Retrieved from The Star Online: http://thestar.com.my.news 63. Shabuddin, N. S., Johari, N., Abdullah, N. H., & Aziz, S. (2016). Perceraian Dalam Kalangan Pasangan Dewasa Pertengahan di Pejabat Agama Daerah Hulu Langat (PAIDHL): Eksplorasi Faktor. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences 1, 36-52. 64. Step-by-Step Through and IVF Cycle. (n.d.). Retrieved from Monash University: https://monashivf.com/fertility-treatments/fertility-treatments/ivf-process/. 65. Wert, G. D., Dondorp, W., Shenfield, F., Barri, P., Devroey, P., Diedrich, K., . . . Pennings, G. (2014 ). ESHRE Task Force on Ethics and Law 23: Medically Assisted Reproduction in Singles, Lesbian and Gay Couples, and Transsexual People. Human Reproduction 29(9), 1859-1865. 66. Xiadong, W., & Juan, S. (2018, July 25). Access Sought for Single Women to Assisted Reproductive Technology. Retrieved from China Daily: http://www.chinadaily.com 67. Yaakob, H. (2009). Individual Reproductive Autonomy in Malaysia: Why Couples Should Be Allowed to Use Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis to Select the Sex of Their Child. Unpublished Phd Thesis. Lancaster: Lancaster University. 68. Yaakob, H. (2013). Islam and Bioethics in Malaysia. Malayan Law Journal, Iiii-Ixv. 69. Yaakob, H. (2018). Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis in Malaysia The Ethics of Embryo Selection. Bangi: UKM Press. 70. Zeiler, K. (2004). Reproductive Autonomous Choice - A Cherished Illusion? Reproductive Autonomy Examined in the Context of Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 7, 175-183.